Definition and Examples of Exonyms and Endonyms

An exonym is a place name  that isnt used by the people who live in that place but that is used by others. Also spelled  xenonym. Paul Woodman has defined exonym as a toponym bestowed from the outside, and in a language from the outside (in Exonyms and the International Standardisation of Geographical Names, 2007).  For example, Warsaw is the English exonym for  the capital of Poland, which the Polish people call  Warszawa.  Vienna is the English exonym for the German and Austrian Wien. In contrast,  a  locally used toponym—that is, a  name used by a group of people to refer to themselves or  their region (as opposed to a name given to them by others)—is called an endonym (or  autonym).  For example,  Kà ¶ln  is a German endonym while  Cologne  is the English  exonym  for  Kà ¶ln. Commentary Europes second-longest river is the Danube--the English exonym for  Donau (in German), Dunaj (in Slovak), and Duna (in Hungarian).Berber  derives from the ultimate exonym  (i.e. a name given by outsiders): the Greek word barbaroi, which mimicked the foreignness of a language by  rendering it as something akin to blah-blah. From it, we get barbarian, as well as Barbary (as in Barbary Coast, Barbary  Pirates, and Barbary apes). In current usage, many exonyms can be considered insensitive (Gypsy, Lapp, Hottentot) and preference is given to the endonym (Roma, Saami, Khoi-San).(Frank Jacobs, All Hail Azawad. The New York Times, April 10, 2012)  [T]he English language exonym Mecca has been shown to be unacceptable to many Arab experts, who are uncomfortable with any alteration to the toponym of the holy place Makkah.(Paul Woodman, Exonyms: A Structural Classification and a Fresh Approach, in Exonyms and the International Standardisation of Geographical Names, ed. by Adami Jorda n, et al. LIT Verlag, 2007) Reasons for the Existence of Exonyms - There are three main reasons for the existence of exonyms. The first is historical. In many cases, explorers, unaware of existing place names, or colonizers and military conquerors unmindful of them, gave names in their own languages to geographical features having native names...The second reason for exonyms stems from problems of pronunciation...There is a third reason. If a geographical feature extends over more than one country it may have a different name in each. (Naftali Kadmon, Toponymy—Theory, and Practice of Geographical Names, in Basic Cartography for Students and Technicians, ed. by R. W. Anson, et al. Butterworth-Heinemann, 1996)-  English uses relatively few exonyms for European cities, especially ones it has come up with on its own ( not borrowed); this may be explained by geographic isolation. This could also explain the low number of exonyms that other languages use for English cities. (Jarno Raukko, A Linguistic Classification of Eponyms, in Exonyms, ed. by Adami Jordan, et al. 2007) Toponyms, Endonyms, and Exonyms - For a  toponym  to be defined as an  exonym, there must exist a minimum degree of difference between it and the corresponding  endonym... The omission of diacritical marks usually does not turn an endonym into an exonym: Sao Paulo (for Sà £o Paulo); Malaga (for Mà ¡laga) or Amman (for Ê ¿AmmÄ n) are not considered exonyms. (United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names,  Manual for the National Standardization of Geographical Names. United Nations Publications, 2006)- If an important topographic feature is located or contained entirely within a single country, most good world atlases and maps print the  endonym  as the primary name, with the translation or conversion into the language of the atlas either in brackets or in smaller type. If a feature transcends political boundaries, and especially if it carries different names in the different countries, or if it lies outside the territorial waters of any one country—exonymisation or translation into the target language of the atlas or map is almost always resorted to. (Naftali Kadmon, Toponymy—Theory, and Practice of Geographical Names, in  Basic Cartography for Students and Technicians, edited by R. W. Anson, et al. Butterworth-Heinemann, 1996) Further Reading Name That  -nymNationality WordOnomasticsProper Name

The World War And Its Effects On Modern Society - 852 Words

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In the Second World War, war culture thrived, resulting in mass propaganda and censorship: this war culture was promoted similarity by the Axis and Allied governments and influenced the public’s views on nationalism, alienation, and morale. For the purpose of being able to carefully examine war culture with World War Two, it is important to examine the terminology within the argument. Historian James McMillian defined and examines different instances of war culture throughout the twentieth-century withinShow MoreRelatedThe Relationship Between Modernity and the First World War1565 Words   |  7 PagesThe First World War, also known as the Great War of 1914-1918, is not an event that manifested overnight; it was the result of ever growing tension among European nations. This conflict was brought about by factors such as, nationalism, militarism, and the Alliance system. 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Is A Life Of Plastic Really Fantastic - 1827 Words

Is a Life of Plastic Really Fantastic? Would you really want to be a Barbie Girl living in a Barbie world? Is being a â€Å"Barbie girl† really worth the risk of putting unknown substances into your body just to have a certain look. Living in a society where getting cosmetic surgery is on the to-do list for everyone is not exactly your ideal world. Cosmetic Surgery has become a huge epidemic in America. First lets separate the two terms reconstructive surgery and cosmetic surgery. Many people do not completely understand the difference between the two, reconstructive surgeries are to fix a abnormality with a certain pat of the body to have that beautified appearance but cosmetic surgeries are to simply just beautify ones appearance without†¦show more content†¦This malformation is a result of an inadequate amount of tissue in the mouth or lip, which stops the available tissue from binding together. Once reconstructive surgery arrived in America, the results from World War I gave many surgeons more motivation to perform these operations. World War I was the most dangerous time period to be in especially for the soldiers that were serving. Stated in a ABOUT article, â€Å"World War I presented physicians with scores of severe facial wounds and burns, changing the history of plastic surgery†(par. 3). There were many weapons that were used during the war that caused the most severe injuries in history. So many surgeons did not know how to aid the wounded because of the new weapons that were used. In fact, some surgeons dedicated most of their talent to creating new techniques to help men of the war. Once these surgeons realized the affect the appearance had on an individual, plastic surgery became much more common in America. America was once said to be a big melting pot of different ethnic groups and cultural rituals. In earlier history, most people did not get these operations done to enhance ones beauty, they did it because their lives almost depended on it. Even though plastic surgery started off as a procedure that was only done to fix an abnormality, this is one thing that has become apart of our culture. Cosmetic surgery has manifested into something that everyone

Frankenstein Essay - 1374 Words

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The Elderly Free Essays

Growing up , children are taught to respect those who are elder than them, emphasizing parents and grandparents. This is a fine moral value to instill on a child but once that child begins to age , he/she will begin to see the truth behind the lies. As people age their minds deteriorate leading to bad motor skills , forgetfulness and irrational thinking , causing society to view them as a crazy nuisance. We will write a custom essay sample on The Elderly or any similar topic only for you Order Now Elderly people need some assistance with daily activities and health care from their families. The adult children of this elders often face a difficult challenge in helping their parents make the right choices. The family is one of the most important providers for the elderly. Infact, the majority of caregivers for the elderly are often member of their own family , most often daughter or granddaughter. But sometimes family members of the elderly people ,who generally take care of them , get frustrated or angry and behave harshly with them , beat them. This leads to elderly abuse. Elderly abuse in our country is growing. Abusers of older adults are both male and female. Usually family members are often the abusers in the domestic surroundings. Researchers estimated two thirds of the elder abuse are family members. The news which comes in the national news paper that elderly parents are being harassed, neglected, and even thrown out of the home, makes a citizen of India shameful and sad. This country was renowned for its good treatment to elderly as well as to the young since ages. The reason was the profound ethical and religious teaching which was prevalent in this country from ages. India being a land of multi lingual and multi religious back ground never one could have thought to see that elderly parents one day could be regarded as unwanted stranger in their own house. But, from a decade or two this unnatural phenomena suddenly appears with such a magnitude that one find himself bewildered how to accept it. Unfortunately this is a real hard fact through which the nation is passing. According to a survey 40% senior citizen living with their families are facing â€Å"emotional and physical abuse. † It is reported that one old grand mother is being thrown out in the garbage by her son and grand son where she ultimately died. India was land where elders were treated with respect and dignity. Mother and father in a house were just like a king and queen where they were treated as a commander of the house not by force but by the way of love and affection which was flourishing in the house. How this sudden change in the attitude of son of the same soil has appeared so abruptly. It is not the soil which has changed but the air and atmosphere of the land has gradually infested with foreign culture and artificial light and glamour as projected through the television and electronic media which has eroded the Indian culture of patience, gratitude and sacrifice. How to cite The Elderly, Papers The Elderly Free Essays Growing up , children are taught to respect those who are elder than them , emphasizing parents and grandparents. This is a fine moral value to instill on a child but once that child begins to age , he/she will begin to see the truth behind the lies. As people age their minds deteriorate leading to bad motor skills , forgetfulness and irrational thinking , causing society to view them as a crazy nuisance. We will write a custom essay sample on The Elderly or any similar topic only for you Order Now Elderly people need some assistance with daily activities and health care from their families. The adult children of this elders often face a difficult challenge in helping their parents make the right choices. The family is one of the most important providers for the elderly. Infact, the majority of caregivers for the elderly are often member of their own family , most often daughter or granddaughter. But sometimes family members of the elderly people ,who generally take care of them , get frustrated or angry and behave harshly with them , beat them. This leads to elderly abuse. Elderly abuse in our country is growing. Abusers of older adults are both male and female. Usually family members are often the abusers in the domestic surroundings. Researchers estimated two thirds of the elder abuse are family members. The news which comes in the national news paper that elderly parents are being harassed, neglected, and even thrown out of the home, makes a citizen of India shameful and sad. This country was renowned for its good treatment to elderly as well as to the young since ages. The reason was the profound ethical and religious teaching which was prevalent in this country from ages. India being a land of multi lingual and multi religious back ground never one could have thought to see that elderly parents one day could be regarded as unwanted stranger in their own house. But, from a decade or two this unnatural phenomena suddenly appears with such a magnitude that one find himself bewildered how to accept it. Unfortunately this is a real hard fact through which the nation is passing. According to a survey 40% senior citizen living with their families are facing â€Å"emotional and physical abuse. † It is reported that one old grand mother is being thrown out in the garbage by her son and grand son where she ultimately died. India was land where elders were treated with respect and dignity. Mother and father in a house were just like a king and queen where they were treated as a commander of the house not by force but by the way of love and affection which was flourishing in the house. How this sudden change in the attitude of son of the same soil has appeared so abruptly. It is not the soil which has changed but the air and atmosphere of the land has gradually infested with foreign culture and artificial light and glamour as projected through the television and electronic media which has eroded the Indian culture of patience, gratitude and sacrifice. How to cite The Elderly, Papers

The Role Of Bobby Kennedy Throughout The Cuban Missile Crisis Essay Example For Students

The Role Of Bobby Kennedy Throughout The Cuban Missile Crisis Essay IntroductionOn the morning of Tuesday October 16, 1962, President John F. Kennedy was reading the Tuesday morning newspapers in his bed at the Whitehouse. Not twenty fours hours before, McGeorge Bundy, Kennedys national security adviser, received the results of Major Richard S. Heysers U-2 mission over San Cristobal Cuba. In light of recent mysterious Soviet and Cuban activities developing in the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, the presidents administration had given the order to conduct reconnaissance missions over the island of Cuba. In particular a fifty-mile trapezoidal swath of territory in western Cuba was to be looked upon under intense scrutiny. A CIA agent reported in the second week of September that this stretch of land was being guarded closely by Peruvian, Colombian, and actual Soviet soldiers. There was a real reason to be suspicious of the activity in western Cuba. The first of this U-2 reconnaissance mission would reveal a shocking discovery.(Chang ; William p.33-47 )The U-2 reconnaissance reports that Bundy received in full detail two 70-foot-long MRBMs at San Cristobal. The news that Bundy would eventually have to expose to President Kennedy would sound alarms not just in his administration or in the United States of America, but throughout the entire world. Bundy did not tell the president that night. He opted to allow him a good nights rest, the last he would have for some time, as it turned out. Bundy felt there was nothing the president could do about the missiles that night anyway, and he would need to be sharp the next morning.(Brugioni p.68) Besides Bundy and the leadership of the U.S. intelligence community, Dean Rusk and his team at State, as well as McNamara and the deputy secretary of defense, Roswell Gilpatric, received word of the U-2s discovery before going to bed on October 15. Kennedys discovery of the missiles could wait till the next morning.(May Zelikow p.24)Thus on the morning of October 16, while Kennedy was lying in bed , Bundy informed that the U-2 mission that flew over Cuba had spotted two nuclear missiles and six missile transports southwest of Havana. Before the summer of that same year had ended, Khrushchev had made the twin promise that ?nothing will be undertaken before the American Congressional elections that could complicate the international situation or aggravate the tension in the relations between our two countries,? and ensured the president through his own brother Robert F. Kennedy, the attorney general of the United States and the presidents closet advisor by means of a back channel, that only defensive weapons were to be placed in Cuba.(Brugioni p56) This last and final statement left the young attorney general and the entire administration to believe that no offensive nuclear missiles, and certainly no weapons that were capable of hitting any target in the continental United States were being placed in Cuba at this time.(Chang ; William p67) The news brought to the Kennedy admin istration in the form of the U-2s telltale photographs made nonsense of both of Khrushchevs pledges. But most importantly the Soviet Union had equipped Cuba with an arsenal of Soviet nuclear missiles despite a presidential statement only a month early that the United States would not tolerate such a situation in the Western Hemisphere. Kennedy felt personally insulted by the deployment of these missiles.(Fursenko ; Naftali p.193) He thought that he had done everything possible to defuse and smooth over tense relations with the Soviet Union even before he took office in 1960. This devastating news from Cuba would result in the tense period in Cold War history to date and perhaps its tensest period in the entire history of the war. Kennedy decided limit the information regarding the devastating news from Cuba to as small a group as possible. This group would come to be known as the Executive Committee of the National Security Council, or as it would later be known and shortened to simply Ex Comm.(Brugioni p.45) This would be the group of Washingtons sharpest and most influential minds that would more or less decide the fate of the nation and the world. A heavy responsibility would be carried on their shoulders. If they failed they we would take the entire nation with them. The group would come to include Charles Bohlen, the old Kremlin hand who was recently named U.S. ambassador to France. Beside Bohlen it would include Secretary of State Dean Rusk, as well as Undersecretary of State George Ball and Assistant Secretary of State for Latin America Edwin M. Martin, as well as Ambassador at Large Llewellyn Thompson. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara and his deputies Roswell Gilpatric and Paul Nitze represented the Defense Department. John McCone, head of the CIA, away on an urgent family matter, was replaced by his deputy Marshall ?Pat? Carter, and the CIA was also represented by the head of the NPIC, Arthur Lundahl, whose analysts had found the missile sites on the U-2 photographs. General Maxwell Taylor came as chairman of the JCS. Rounding out the group were McGeorge Bundy and the Kennedy speechwriter Theodore Sorensen, as well as Treasury Secretary C. Douglas Dillon. Last but not least this group of Washingtons sharpest minds was joined and highly i nfluenced by the Presidents brother and closest advisor, the Attorney General of the United States, Robert F. Kennedy.(May Zelikow p.8-12)Robert F. Kennedy would prove to be one of the most, if not the most important person responsible in deciding the fate of the two world superpowers and essentially the entire world next to Nikita S. Khrushchev, the Premier of the Soviet Union, and his own brother, John F. Kennedy, the President of the United States. Even before the crisis reached a head when the American government finally discovered the nuclear missiles in western Cuba, Bobby Kennedy played a key role in attempting to guarantee Americas worst nightmare would never come to being. Through his own personal back channel to the Kremlin, a Soviet intelligence officer and member of the KGB, Georgi Bolshakov, Kennedy attempted to shape and relay messages and negotiations between the two superpowers in question.(Brugioni p.157) When Kennedy was deceived through these private and often pe rsonal channels, there was no question that Robert F. Kennedy felt a degree of personal insult and damage to his own pride. Kennedy would play a key role throughout all of the Ex Comm meetings, and while his brother was away, there was no question that was in charge of these meetings. Throughout these meetings, Bobbys own views on how to deal with this dramatic situation evolved from a rather hawkish and indignant position; a wish to get even, to a much more moderate and sensible, even dovish position on how to deal with the situation in question. Kennedy would play an important role in shaping the final course of action in handling the drama at hand. Finally Kennedy would play the role of messenger and negotiator with the Soviet ambassador to Washington, Anatoly Dobrynin, in negotiating the final deal and trade off to defuse the conflict and end it once and for all. Involved in this secret negotiating, the knowledge of which was possessed by less then ten men in both the United States and the Soviet Union at this time is also laden with controversy, involving classified documents and different accounts of the true story revealed on both the American and Soviet side of the conflict, including the memoirs of Nikita S. Khrushchev himself.(Chang Kornbluh p.237)Kennedy was one of the most important shapers of the entire conflict. Without his presence it is unknown which direction this conflict would have taken. It would be Robert F. Kennedy whom the president would rely on and trust the most in this situation. He was one of the most vocal in dealing with the conflict and certainly one of the most rational. He helped keep control of t he situation and staved off the continued assaults of the war hawks in congress who truly looked to attain the upper hand in the method of dealing with this conflict. His great and important role in this conflict that will be discussed, from his secret back channels to the Kremlin in the months before the crisis, to the deals he would eventually present and make to the Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin. Back Channels to the KremlinRobert F. Kennedy first met Georgi Bolshakov through Frank Holeman, an American journalist for the New York Daily News. Bolshakov was a soviet intelligence agent. He had been working for the Soviet intelligence agency GRU. The GRU, who began his grueling training process in 1943, while the war with Hitler, was still very much in full swing. Despite the war going on around him, Bolshakov was trained in a vigorous apprenticeship for seven years to become a Soviet intelligence officer, and then attended a three-year course at the High Intelligence School of the General Staff. In all his training lasted until 1950 during which time he acquired some impressive English language skills. As a result of his impressive English skills, Bolshakov was assigned to the TASS Soviet news agency in Washington where he would be an editor whose main role in the office would be to cultivate sources.(Brugioni p.157) After dedicating four years to this assignment aboard in Washi ngton, Bolshakov was recalled back to Moscow where he was to work under Soviet Defense Minister Marshal Georgi Zhukov. When Zhukov was dismissed in 1957, a temporary halt was brought to Bolshakovs career. However his career would see a rival by the end of the 1950s through his friendship with the new son-in-law of Soviet Premier Khrushchev, Aleksei Adzhubei, the husband of Rada Khrushchev. By 1960 Bolshakov was back in Washington working once again for GRU.(Brugioni p. 157-9) Frank Holeman had first met Bolshakov in 1951 at a Soviet held lunch-in in Holemans honor. The two hit it off rather well and met infrequently and exchanged information. Soviets soon began to value Holeman as a useful informant and encouraged this budding relationship until Bolshakov was transferred back to Moscow in 1955.(Brugioni p.159) Upon Bolshakovs return to Washington in 1960, Holeman was quick to reestablish ties with his former acquaintance from Moscow. Soon after Holeman and Bolshakov began there corr espondence again, Holeman dropped the prospect to Bolshakov of possible meeting in person to discuss national interests with the attorney general of the United States, the brother of the President himself, Robert F. Kennedy. Bolshakov was taken off guard by the suggestion, but was quite tempted and excited about possible taking face to face with someone in such a position of American power as Kennedy. Despite his hidden enthusiasm, Bolshakov replied to the journalist that he needed approval from his ?embassy before such a meeting could be proposed.(Brugioni p.160-4) What Bolshakov really needed was permission for his boss in the GRU, whose identity is still unknown, who initially upon hearing the proposal was rather surprised that one of his assistance would of interest to the Attorney General of the United States and rejected the proposition. Why would some one of such importance wish to speak to one of his assistants?Despite the rejection by his superior and despite relaying the m essage back to Holeman that he would be unable to meet with the attorney general, Bolshakov decided to risk it anyway and meet up with Holeman on May 9th of 1961, just ten days after Holeman made his initial proposal. Bolshakov chose the date of May 9th for the meeting with Bobby Kennedy because it was a Soviet holiday in celebration of the defeat of fascism in 1945, and his office with the GRU would be understaffed as most of his colleagues would be home enjoying the holiday. Thus Bolshakov would be able to move around much easier.(Brugioni p.166)Holeman met Bolshakov at roughly 4:30 at a nearby restaurant in Georgetown. Bolshakov had barely sat down to eat when Holeman asked him if he would be ready to meet Kennedy at 8:30 in front of the Justice Department office in Washington. Bolshakov was once again caught off guard by the abruptness of the scheduling of the meeting, but agreed non-the less to meet with Kennedy at this time. At 8:30 sharp Kennedy was waiting with one of his ai des on the steps of the Justice Department building. Holeman introduced the Soviet intelligence officer to the Attorney General of the United States. With that Both Holeman and the Kennedy aide left the two gentlemen to themselves to talk.(Brugioni p.167-8) The groundwork was unofficially laid. From then on Robert F. Kennedy had his own personal connection to the Kremlin, via a Soviet intelligence officer. Fame - Not all It's Cracked Up to Be EssayBobby Kennedy and the Ex Comm MeetingsThe beginning of the Ex Comm talks for Robert F. Kennedy were marked by humiliation. The humiliation that he was directly lied to by the Soviet Union through one of his closest contacts and the humiliation that Castro had once again made the United States look like a bunch of fools. He struggled in the early part of these Ex Comm meetings with that humiliation on his shoulders. Robert Kennedy believed that the missiles in Cuba represented an extremely valuable bargaining chip for both the Soviets and the Cubans. His opinion was also shared by his brother the president of the United States. Kennedy wondered whether Castro might not make new threats against Cubas neighbors, saying, ?You move troops down into that part of Venezuela, were going to fire these missiles.?(Fursenko ; Naftali p.235) The attorney general in the first meeting of Ex Comm was by far the strongest advocate for invasion. He understood his brothers sensitivity toward the political impact of a U.S. reaction that was not considered commensurate to the crime. But Robert Kennedy also expected Khrushchev simply to reload his missiles if he lost his first group of missiles to an American air strike. The odds of destroying every missile cleanly and efficiently with just one simple air strike were next to impossible.(Fursenko Naftali p.247)Perhaps as a way of showing how an invasion could be made internationally acceptable, Robert Kennedy brought up the quick fix that he had been advocating off and on since the Bay of Pigs disaster. ?We should also think of . . . whether there is some other way we can get involved in this through . . . Guantanamo Bay, or something, . . . or whether theres some ship that, you know, sink the Maine again or something.?(Hinckle ; William p. 278) Kennedy was indeed grasping for straws suggesting such farfetched and outlandish excuses for invading Cuba, under pretexts of questionable morality. However Kennedy was confused and extremely frustrated by the current situation. Much of what Kennedy suggests early on in the Ex Comm meetings were the venting of great frustration over the crisis. None the less his brother, the president of the United States took Bobby Kennedys lamentations very seriously. Bobby was still his closest advisor and John F. Kennedy felt the same frustration and confusion that his brother felt. Initially most of the other members of Ex Comm barring the members of the actually military who were present, supported a much more peaceful way of dealing with the situation. Diplomacy was seen as an alternative means of dealing with such an explosive situation. Llewellyn Thompson advocated a naval blockade of Cuba.(Dolan Scariano p.105) Believing it ?very highly doubtful the Russians would resist a blockade against military weapons . . .?(Dolan Scariano p.105) Thompson argued that the best way to avoid peace or at least legitimatize an invasion of Cuba was a combined stern coercion of blockade with a public demand that Moscow dismantle its missile sites in Cuba. Thompson realized that odds were this would not be enough to remove the missiles already existing in Cuba and would not prevent them from becoming operational in the near future. He suggested threatening to use force if Khrushchev ignored the U.S. demand. ?I think we should be under no illusions that this would probably i n the end lead to the same thing,? he said with some resignation. ?But we would do it under an entirely different posture and background, and much less danger of getting into the big war.?(Fursenko Naftali p.253)In the beginning Robert Kennedy, still very much a hawk disagreed in entirely with Thompson. He saw the blockade as a ?very slow death.?(Thompson p.123) Robert Kennedy envisioned that a blockade would last for months. He saw a great deal of conflict involved in a naval blockade anyway. The stopping of Russian ships by the American navy would cause chaos and possibly even retaliation by Russian ships. Russian ships would dare the American navy to stop them, and no doubt about it there would be ships that would attempt to run and break through any kind of naval blockade put into affect by the United States Navy. Russian planes that attempted to fly over the American blockade would have to me shot down which would lead to nothing more than an escalated mess.(Fursenko Naftali p. 256-9) These at least were Kennedys arguments. On October 19, the Ex Comm divided into two groups. There was the air strike team, which included Treasury Secretary Dillon, Bundy, CIA director John McCone, and the former secretary of state Dean Acheson who had now joined in on the Ex Comm meetings. Robert Kennedy chose to join this group. Favoring the blockade were Secretary of Defense John McNamara, Dean Rusk, Thompson, George Ball.(Blight ; Welch p.235) The responsibility of the two groups was to generate by the end of the day position papers that made the strongest case possible for their preference. Over the next thirty-six hours, Robert Kennedy played a key role in bringing these two groups together. He considered himself apart of the air strike team, but his position on so drastic a measure was wavering. While he still saw the naval blockade as full of headaches and weaknesses, he saw the air strike position as even more dangerous.(Fursenko ; Naftali p.263-4)The reason he was wavering was not that agreed with Thompson or the others, rather he began to fully recognize the consequence of the alternative air strike. An air strike left little room for the Soviet Union and communist Cuba to manuver. In a situation such as the one placed upon them in an air strike, the two communist nations would seemingly have no choice but to fight back and defend themselves.(Blight ; Welch p.229) In the morning Bobby Kennedy argued that the U.S. airforce should simply go and make the attack without warning. Only after a full air strike was made against the Soviet Cuban positions on the island should the United States go to the Organization of American States. This was Kennedys view. By the evening of the same day, he was firmly against striking without warning. Kennedy realized the cowardlyness in such an attack. A similar surprise attack was made on the day of December 7th, 1945, a day that would live in infamy. There was no way Kennedy decided, that he would allow his brother to be compared with Tojo of Japan, in refere nce to the Japanese sneak on the American navy stationed in Pearl Harbor that eventually lead to American involvement in World War II. The United States was not in the tradition of cowardlyness.(Blight Welch p.230) While he still was leaning towards an air strike or at least an eventual air strike over a naval blockade, he realized that the Soviet response to such a strike would be far more prepared if they were warned previously. None the less Bobby Kennedy had become dead set against a preemptive without warning strike on the island of Cuba. As a result, he had changed his mind about resorting to a blockade as a first step.(Thompson p.145)By the time John F. Kennedy had arrived back at the White House after a scheduled cross country trip across the United States early Saturday morning, Bobby Kennedy was firmly locked into the blockade camp of Ex Comm. If a vote were to take place in Ex Comm, the air strike camp would lose. Robert F. Kennedy upon weighing the options of an air str ike over taking the first step as an announced military blockade realized that the consequences of the air strike made the blockade far more appealing.(Fursenko Naftali p.267) At least the blockade could buy time and allow the Soviets to retreat without a single shot being fired. It was President Kennedy who in fact needed convincing of the impracticality of an air strike as opposed to a naval blockade. Kennedy would indeed take some convincing that the blockade would be a safer alternative to an outright surgical air strike on Soviet missile positions in Cuba. However in light of new CIA intelligence that intelligence agency understood that the operational status of the missiles and the possibility of hitherto undiscovered missile sites were the issues closest to the presidents heart and potentially most relevant to his final decision.(Hinckle ; William p.287) Thus with the help Bobby Kennedy bringing the Ex Comm group together and the shining of light onto newly found intelligence, the blockade camp carried the day. On Monday morning Kennedy would give a nationally televised address, followed by the imposition of a limited blockade a day later. Kennedy realized that the pentagon barring McNamara was against the decision, but was affirmed by General Taylor that the U.S. armed services would back the presidents decision completely.(Hinckle William p. 293) Robert Kennedy also argued that the pretext behind a naval blockade of the island of Cuba should be of a moral pretext. He argued that the pretext of a naval blockade should involve the deception of the Soviets in there placing of nuclear weapons on the island of Cuba despite American warnings of what would be the consequences of such an action. President Kennedy however rejected this moral pretext. Kennedy stated flatly why there was not an acceptable military option at this stage in the crisis. The Soviet Unions mobile MRBM (medium range ballistic missile) bases ?can be set up quite quickly,? and for this reason and this reason alone he was sure there were more on the island had previously been detected.(Cohen p.175) Kennedy no longer believed the Soviets would act prudently in the event of war. After all it was not very prudent of the Soviet Union to seriously believe it could place nuclear missiles right under the nose of America and easily get away with it. Kennedy thought that maybe even the Soviets we re itching for the fight. Right up till Kennedys address, the Soviets were unaware that the Americans had idea that the United States knew of the ballistic missiles in Cuba. Howe

Oligopoly on Credit Cards Instant Spending Power Essay Sample free essay sample

In recent old ages. the usage of hard currency has been replaced by the usage of the recognition card. or bear down card. Very simple. efficient and practical. recognition cards has seemed to replace hard currency in the billfold of many consumers exerting their new found disbursement power with the usage of the fictile card. But before we proceed any farther with the treatment. allow us specify the footings used in the rubric of the paper. Harmonizing the American Heritage Dictionary. the recognition card is a fictile card holding a magnetic strip issued by a bank or concern authorising the holder to purchase good and services on recognition. [ In consequence. the recognition card allows the purchaser to buy item/s or unafraid payment on services rendered to him/her by availing of the recognition line that the bank or concern has extended to the consumer. ] It gives the consumer enormous flexibleness in the facet of disbursement power at his disposal. We will write a custom essay sample on Oligopoly on Credit Cards: Instant Spending Power Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page â€Å"Definitions† Oligopolymeans a market status that the Sellerss are so few that the actions of anyone of them will materially impact the monetary value and have mensurable impact on rivals. The retail gas market is an illustration of an oligopoly. Let us specify other market conditions to give a clearer position of the status and therefore do for a better apprehension of the province that is mentioned. Atrustis an international mob. combine. or swear particularly formed to modulate the monetary values and end product in some field of concern. For illustration. theOrganization of Petroleum Exporting Countries( OPEC ) is an illustration of a trust. They are a little group of manufacturers of a good or services. who agree to modulate supply in an attempt to command or pull strings monetary values. [ OPEC does this by modulating the production end product of its member states and therefore commanding the supply and accordingly the monetary value that oil can be purchased in the market. ] Aduopolyis a state of affairs in which two companies own about all of the market for a given type of merchandise. Duopolies manufacture the same merchandises and aim the same market. A more familiar term to most of us is amonopoly. In amonopoly. there is sole control of a trade good or service in a peculiar market that makes possible the use of monetary values. Oligopsonyis a market status that exists when there are few purchasers in the market. ( it can be considered the antonym of oligopoly. in which there are few Sellerss in the market ) . As a consequence. they can greatly act upon the monetary value and other market factors. There are many other market conditions that can be discussed. but allow it do that the above mentioned market conditions are mentioned to pull out a better apprehension of the topic at manus. â€Å"Oligopoly in the Market: The Existence or Non-existence† We do non contend the presence of an oligopoly in the market today. The motions of the companies that offer the same merchandises are a given. The presence of recognition card companies seems to be booming in the market today. This fuel the thrust for the consumer to purchase good that the individual may or may non necessitate in the present clip. But what has the recognition card industry given in the part of the purchasing power of consumers? Does the broad pick of card companies in the market have an impact to the purchasing populace? Among the advantages that the recognition cards offer is the increased purchase power and easiness of purchase. Credit cards are really helpful in the sense that purchases of points can be convenient ; particularly when the idea of transporting big sums of hard currency is non an immediate option or hard currency on manus is short. We might non like the thought of transporting big amounts to do purchases at shops for our demands. and the recognition card is one manner of guaranting that we can get the points that we want from the shops. Another advantage is the protection of purchases. Items can be damaged or faulty. so the recognition card statements from the bank or shops can help in the confidence that the points are covered by pertinent ordinances and supply cogent evidence that the points were purchased from any peculiar shop. Constructing recognition lines is another built-in advantage to holding a recognition card. When you have a good recognition history on the card. doing loans and other fiscal minutess in the hereafter can be easy accomplished in the visible radiation of good recognition history. if payments on the recognition loans are sacredly paid by the client. We besides can trust on recognition cards to do exigency purchases if we are short of financess. or in doing big purchases that are frequently non planned or budgeted out by the individual or the household. Sicknesses or sudden unwellnesss can do the instance for recognition cards because this can pay for these unexpected disbursals and non set the person in a peculiarly inconvenient fiscal crunch. But. on the lighter side. most recognition cards offer a myriad of benefits. such as price reductions from shops and concerns. fillip strategies and air hose stat mis for free. Many carry insurance for their clients for those that help of it in procuring travel agreements. and recognition cards are largely accepted in abroad trips every bit good. But as with all benefits that an point can supply. there are besides disadvantages that are built-in in the availment of an point. as the advantages of recognition cards have been discussed. there are the disadvantages to the usage of recognition cards. As we listed earlier. transporting around a recognition card makes the option of transporting a batch of hard currency is eliminated. or at least bought to a bare lower limit. But that advantage may besides work out as a disadvantage. because it can take to mistreat on the portion of the consumer Among the most obvious is the chance of traveling over your budget. Not merely in the sense that when a individual makes purchases. more frequently big 1s. the recognition cards still have to be paid away. The single thinks that the money spent on the point is the lone disbursal that he/she will do ; they forget that the company supplying the line of recognition has charges inlaid with each usage of the card. High involvement rates on the card can supply unexpected budgetary spendings to the otherwise planned budget for the period. Of class. we can non overlook that the usage of the recognition card will do an extra impact on the fundss of an person in the signifier of increased debt. Credit card companies make money every clip that you use the card by bear downing you involvement on the purchase that the individual has made. Some charge 2 to 2. 5 % on the purchase. but some charge even higher than that. For illustration. if you don’t pay off the point that you purchased for $ 100. card companies charge 10 times the involvement rate on the purchase. In consequence. they will be bear downing 20 to 25 % on the $ 100 that you owe them. So. it is wise to look at the disbursement forms of the card users so that merely carefully thought of purchases on the card are made. and the budget is non â€Å"maxed out† . so to talk. Besides the benefits of the cards are non certain that they will be accepted in ALL shops or stores ; these tend to change from concern to concern. So. is the solution acquiring more than one card or roll uping several cards to guarantee that we carry the RIGHT card? â€Å"Is More the Merrier? † To convey the affair into focal point. we can non seek for broad applications of the usage of recognition cards ; that will take to excessively many angles in the country. So. let’s focal point on one market that can provide the reply to the job at manus. For the intent of replying the inquiry. let’s focal point on one sector with a comparatively high usage of recognition cards. Again. we must province that recognition cards make money each clip that you sue the recognition cards by bear downing you with involvement for the purchase that you made with your recognition card. College pupils normally fit the market the recognition card companies have in head. High use. about limitless disbursement power and an remarkably high form for exigency disbursement. purchases for stuffs. books. and other disbursals in the class of their stay in college. But the pupils that help of the recognition cards normally come up with jobs that they don’t foresee in the usage of this fictile admiration. Research shows: Included in the research is the fact that pupils have an mean recognition card balance is undergraduates that have at least on card have high degrees of balance on their card in the sum of $ 3. 000 to $ 7. 000. The sad fact is in the concluding analysis. college pupils will be tied to a mountain of debt even before they can get down gaining for themselves or their households. What the statistics tell us is that with the addition in the figure of cards in one’s billfold dosage non warrant that the recognition bite will slow off. But certainly the grownup consumers will hold a better appreciation of their disbursement forms utilizing the recognition card. They have planned out the budget needed for the wise usage of the fictile card to safely remain in the bounds of the usage of the recognition card. Or do they? The image that the statistics show us is that the American family. and single. look to be doing no better in their usage of the recognition cards. Let’s cite a few. and so likely we can acquire a better position of the outrageousness of the job. And. in a sobering note. research leaves us with a astonishing aspect of the job with the incorrect and maltreatment of recognition cards. So. we can infer from the research that the maltreatment of recognition cards can hold important impact of the fiscal standing of the person with respects to the personal and household budget. But that does non look to halt the consumers from availing themselves of the installation. As indicated by the graphs here. the desire for recognition cards will reflect that the privation for cards are non diminishing in the visible radiation of the facts borne out by the research. but increasing. giving acceptance to the thesis that more people want to hold more than one card at their disposal. Recognition CARDS – NATIONAL AVERAGES â€Å"Conclusion† In the short and long term. recognition cards will be an indispensable and indispensable portion of our current manner of life. It seems that the privation to buy of points. whether needed or a luxury is non borne out of the informations presented. What is seeable is the possibility that when the usage. or the maltreatment as in this instance. can lend to the unneeded load of unwanted and at times expensive outgos that will present a job in due clip. What should be exercised in the usage of this newly-found purchasing installation is the proper direction of this resource so that the disadvantages will non go a curse to the client. but a helpful tool in the manner that we purchase the demands that we must hold to prolong our current manner of life. Discipline is the key to this job. and the deficiency of it can and will lend to the jobs of recognition card usage. Sound and prudent idea must be given to the continued usage and maintaining ourselves from impulse purchasing will greatly help us in avoiding the booby traps of the recognition card. Mentions Biel. C. ( 1999 ) . â€Å"Up to Their Ears in Credit Card Debt† . Retrieved November 26. 2007. hypertext transfer protocol: //www. gwu. edu/oapa/documents/Up_To_Thier_Ears_In_Credit_Card_Debt. pdf Houghton Mifflin Company ( Ask. Com ) . Copyright 2005. From the American Heritage Dictionary. Fourth Edition. . copyright 2005. hypertext transfer protocol: //www. ask. com Investopedia. com. 2005 December 24 20:05:15. â€Å"Definitions for Oligopoly. † ( Link from World Wide Web. ask. com ) . Retrieved November 26 2007. hypertext transfer protocol: //www. investopedia. com Spark Notes. Retrieved November 26. 2007. hypertext transfer protocol: //www. sparknotes. com/economics/micro/monopolies/section2. rhtml Sallie Mae Student Credit Loan Company. â€Å"Nellie Mae Library† . â€Å"Undergraduate Students and Credit Cards: An Analysis of Use Ratess and Trends† . ( 2001 ) . Retrieved 26 November 2007. hypertext transfer protocol: //www. nelliemae. com/library/research_9. hypertext markup language Additional Sites Association for Payments and for those that deliver payment services to clients ( Choosing and Using. com. ) . Retrieved November 26. 2007. hypertext transfer protocol: //www. choosingandusing. com/ch-types. htm. Mountain State Centers for Independent Living. â€Å"Advantages of Using Credit† . Retrieved November 26 2007. hypertext transfer protocol: //www. mtcsil/skills/budget=12. hypertext markup language Recognition Counseling Biz. Retrieved November 26. 2007. †Credit Reding Statistics. † hypertext transfer protocol: //www. creditcounselingbiz. com/index. hypertext markup language