How to Write a Good Essay Conclusion

How to Write a Good Essay Conclusion All good things must come to an end. However, many students fail to identify the points that can make their essay conclusions convincing and persuasive. Here are five ideas that can assist your academic writing, establish a sense of closure, and leave a lasting memory in your reader’s mind. Tie up the loose ends If you need to grab the readers attention when starting your essay; in a conclusion, it is of vital importance to provide a summary of your findings and resolve any ambiguity that your readers might have after reading your work. Usually, it is a good idea to revise the arguments and examples discussed throughout the piece and show how they confirmed or discarded your initial assumptions and hypotheses. You can also link your last paragraph to your introduction by repeating some words and phrases to make your work appear more coherent. †¦ and make ends meet Every essay is unique in terms of its requirements. In some cases, a long conclusion with a summary of your findings and a recommendations section may be optimal. In other cases, the graders expect a brief recap of 200 words or less. Make sure that you have thoroughly studied your work requirements in order to deliver what is expected of you. There are few things more disappointing than arduously writing a piece of work that is discarded due to the failure to meet formal requirements. What has been hidden will all be revealed in the end The final phase is a good moment to revise your work one more time and see how your results tie with the initial objectives. Not directly answering the question that is being asked is a fatal mistake one can make writing an essay. You can also get lower marks if your tutor does not understand the argument you have been developing. Hence, make sure that your conclusion clearly outlines how you have answered your main question. Who is on the receiving end? Well-written essays usually contain valuable ideas based on the best practices of industry leaders, innovative academic theories, or the analysis of large data samples. These concepts may be highly interesting for practitioners such as small businesses, entrepreneurs, or governmental regulators. Including a recommendations section into your conclusion may be a good idea to make your argument stronger. This demonstrates how your essay is linked with real-life practice and your future work as a manager. In every end, there is also a beginning While your particular essay has been completed, a researcher’s work is never done. Outlining the limitations of your findings and providing the possible directions of future research became a common courtesy in academic society. These steps can also contribute to your final mark. Writing an effective conclusion is less difficult than you may think. However, these recommendations cannot replace thoughtful experimentation. Essay writing is a creative activity reflecting your personal vision and skills. Hence, you will probably need several attempts to polish your essay conclusion.

Definition and Examples of Exonyms and Endonyms

An exonym is a place name  that isnt used by the people who live in that place but that is used by others. Also spelled  xenonym. Paul Woodman has defined exonym as a toponym bestowed from the outside, and in a language from the outside (in Exonyms and the International Standardisation of Geographical Names, 2007).  For example, Warsaw is the English exonym for  the capital of Poland, which the Polish people call  Warszawa.  Vienna is the English exonym for the German and Austrian Wien. In contrast,  a  locally used toponym—that is, a  name used by a group of people to refer to themselves or  their region (as opposed to a name given to them by others)—is called an endonym (or  autonym).  For example,  Kà ¶ln  is a German endonym while  Cologne  is the English  exonym  for  Kà ¶ln. Commentary Europes second-longest river is the Danube--the English exonym for  Donau (in German), Dunaj (in Slovak), and Duna (in Hungarian).Berber  derives from the ultimate exonym  (i.e. a name given by outsiders): the Greek word barbaroi, which mimicked the foreignness of a language by  rendering it as something akin to blah-blah. From it, we get barbarian, as well as Barbary (as in Barbary Coast, Barbary  Pirates, and Barbary apes). In current usage, many exonyms can be considered insensitive (Gypsy, Lapp, Hottentot) and preference is given to the endonym (Roma, Saami, Khoi-San).(Frank Jacobs, All Hail Azawad. The New York Times, April 10, 2012)  [T]he English language exonym Mecca has been shown to be unacceptable to many Arab experts, who are uncomfortable with any alteration to the toponym of the holy place Makkah.(Paul Woodman, Exonyms: A Structural Classification and a Fresh Approach, in Exonyms and the International Standardisation of Geographical Names, ed. by Adami Jorda n, et al. LIT Verlag, 2007) Reasons for the Existence of Exonyms - There are three main reasons for the existence of exonyms. The first is historical. In many cases, explorers, unaware of existing place names, or colonizers and military conquerors unmindful of them, gave names in their own languages to geographical features having native names...The second reason for exonyms stems from problems of pronunciation...There is a third reason. If a geographical feature extends over more than one country it may have a different name in each. (Naftali Kadmon, Toponymy—Theory, and Practice of Geographical Names, in Basic Cartography for Students and Technicians, ed. by R. W. Anson, et al. Butterworth-Heinemann, 1996)-  English uses relatively few exonyms for European cities, especially ones it has come up with on its own ( not borrowed); this may be explained by geographic isolation. This could also explain the low number of exonyms that other languages use for English cities. (Jarno Raukko, A Linguistic Classification of Eponyms, in Exonyms, ed. by Adami Jordan, et al. 2007) Toponyms, Endonyms, and Exonyms - For a  toponym  to be defined as an  exonym, there must exist a minimum degree of difference between it and the corresponding  endonym... The omission of diacritical marks usually does not turn an endonym into an exonym: Sao Paulo (for Sà £o Paulo); Malaga (for Mà ¡laga) or Amman (for Ê ¿AmmÄ n) are not considered exonyms. (United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names,  Manual for the National Standardization of Geographical Names. United Nations Publications, 2006)- If an important topographic feature is located or contained entirely within a single country, most good world atlases and maps print the  endonym  as the primary name, with the translation or conversion into the language of the atlas either in brackets or in smaller type. If a feature transcends political boundaries, and especially if it carries different names in the different countries, or if it lies outside the territorial waters of any one country—exonymisation or translation into the target language of the atlas or map is almost always resorted to. (Naftali Kadmon, Toponymy—Theory, and Practice of Geographical Names, in  Basic Cartography for Students and Technicians, edited by R. W. Anson, et al. Butterworth-Heinemann, 1996) Further Reading Name That  -nymNationality WordOnomasticsProper Name

The World War And Its Effects On Modern Society - 852 Words

As sociologist Phillip Zimbardo defines, Evil consists of intentionally behaving in ways that harm, abuse, demean, dehumanize, or destroy innocent others- or using one’s authority and systematic power to encourage or permit others to do so on your behalf. In short it is ‘knowing better but doing worse’. (Zimbardo 5) History contains a multitude of incidents that cast various viewpoints on the evil within humanity. Albeit these incidents have had frightening consequences on the societies that experienced these situations, nevertheless these same consequences still affect the modern world. An event that shook the perception of good and evil, while still affecting modern society, was the Second World War. The actions of the Allied and Axis forces, as well as the intention of these actions, have caused disputes concerning the morality of either side. War culture is a term commonly used to define the techniques used to justify a country’s amoral actions within the war. In the Second World War, war culture thrived, resulting in mass propaganda and censorship: this war culture was promoted similarity by the Axis and Allied governments and influenced the public’s views on nationalism, alienation, and morale. For the purpose of being able to carefully examine war culture with World War Two, it is important to examine the terminology within the argument. Historian James McMillian defined and examines different instances of war culture throughout the twentieth-century withinShow MoreRelatedThe Relationship Between Modernity and the First World War1565 Words   |  7 PagesThe First World War, also known as the Great War of 1914-1918, is not an event that manifested overnight; it was the result of ever growing tension among European nations. This conflict was brought about by factors such as, nationalism, militarism, and the Alliance system. An upheaval such as the First World War was witness to the emergence of the glorification of war, struggle, despair, destruction and immense loss of life. The First World War brought about a defining moment in the history of theRead MoreGeorge Orwell s Brave New World1601 Words   |  7 PagesThroughout time numerous individuals have attempted to predict what the future holds for our society. If one was to narrow their focus o n the past century they would see the works and predictions of Aldous Huxley and George Orwell. Both Huxley and Orwell, as one could infer, composed novels that describe future societies and their inner workings. Aldous Huxley, author of Brave New World, where members of society originate from a lab and who’s lives are pre-determined by the controllers. The controllersRead MoreThe Effect Of Imperialism And Nationalism1092 Words   |  5 Pages The effects of imperialism and nationalism brought the world into an unenviable position during the early 1900 s. Colonies began to revolt against their rulers and left civilian unrest behind. The people began to question and change different structures of governments. Wars began to brew amongst nations and revolutions sparked. These events, however, remain far from inconsequential to modern day societies. Certain aspects, specifically, Gandhi s non-violent resistance, Karl Marx s The CommunistRead MoreEuropean History as Told Through Diaghilevs Rite of Spring Essay example1030 Words   |  5 Pagescustoms, whereas the 20th Century is seen as the ‘modern era’. So where in between these two extremes can historians label a turning point as the end of one era, and the start of another? Modris Eksteins offers his view in Rites of Spring, where he uses the Russian ballet of the same name as a metaphor for the changing society during the World War I era. Eksteins views Germany as being the most modern nation in Europe, despite the outcome of the war, and sees its characteristics in the ballet, withRead MoreMilitary Historians And Theorists Postulate That Napoleon Invented Modern Warfare916 Words   |  4 PagesNapoleon invented modern warfare. This belief is not true. Although there are aspects of how Napoleon fought that are used by many modern armies today, and his tactics and philosophy of fighting should continue to be studied, Napoleonic warfare is not fundamentally similar to modern warfare. Napole on implemented ideas that modern armies use today; however the Revolutions in Military Affairs (RMAs) of the Franco-Prussian Wars and American Civil War, and the military revolutions of World War I, and the NuclearRead MoreCause and Effect on World War 1 Essay743 Words   |  3 PagesCause and Effect on World War 1 World War One, a huge conflict that sparked in 1914 and lasting all the way until 1918. The war was between the world’s greatest powers as two opposing sides; the Central Powers and the Allies. It was a chain of events that had started this was which consist of key features such as imperialism, alliances, growth of militarism, crisis, and nationalism. It was the result of these accumulating factors that had eventually evoked war. The effects on World War One includedRead MoreThe Metamorphosis Isolation Essay1491 Words   |  6 Pagesthe effects of isolation on man and it’s impact on life. The use of modernism in Kafka’s writing was a reflection of the characteristic shift from the beauty and innocence of romanticism to the cold harsh reality of life after World War I. Kafka’s lifelong alienation intersects with his work where he draws on his personal experiences to create a protagonist that draws on Kafka’s life. At the opening of the twentieth century, World War I shifted the previously progressive mentality of society as aRead MoreThe Civil War Has Changed The Country987 Words   |  4 PagesThe history of America, as a nation is connected through the wars it has entered and how these wars have irreversibly changed the country. â€Å"The Civil War made modern America†¦ [and] we remain connected to this war† (Suri, Lecture 1). This is because the Civil War was an establishment of our nation’s beliefs and freedoms; fought to preserve the Union, this war shaped what America was and would become. The Civil War changed the notion of what liberty was, the transition from negative freedom to positiveRead MoreThe Negative Effects of Nationalism Essay1499 Words   |  6 PagesThe Negative Effects of Nationalism Nationalism is a modern political ideology that creates a devotion to one’s culture and is the belief that from acting independent instead of communally will benefit nations which highlight national goals rather than international ones. Nationalism didn’t start till around the 17th, and 18th centuries which is because there was no concept of what a nation was. In the simplest terms, there was a loyalty to the â€Å"crown†Read MoreLupe Fiasco’s Modern Voice Essay1514 Words   |  7 Pagesindividuals who stands up against the corrupt society he and many others face. Those â€Å"leaders† express their profound thoughts for both him and the many others that are too afraid to speak out. One of the most notorious writers in American history and is known for his transcendental ideals. However, today’s society lacks individuals who parallels with Whitman. Lupe Fiasco represents the Modern American voice speaking out against the degrading world society and does so by influencing the public through

Is A Life Of Plastic Really Fantastic - 1827 Words

Is a Life of Plastic Really Fantastic? Would you really want to be a Barbie Girl living in a Barbie world? Is being a â€Å"Barbie girl† really worth the risk of putting unknown substances into your body just to have a certain look. Living in a society where getting cosmetic surgery is on the to-do list for everyone is not exactly your ideal world. Cosmetic Surgery has become a huge epidemic in America. First lets separate the two terms reconstructive surgery and cosmetic surgery. Many people do not completely understand the difference between the two, reconstructive surgeries are to fix a abnormality with a certain pat of the body to have that beautified appearance but cosmetic surgeries are to simply just beautify ones appearance without†¦show more content†¦This malformation is a result of an inadequate amount of tissue in the mouth or lip, which stops the available tissue from binding together. Once reconstructive surgery arrived in America, the results from World War I gave many surgeons more motivation to perform these operations. World War I was the most dangerous time period to be in especially for the soldiers that were serving. Stated in a ABOUT article, â€Å"World War I presented physicians with scores of severe facial wounds and burns, changing the history of plastic surgery†(par. 3). There were many weapons that were used during the war that caused the most severe injuries in history. So many surgeons did not know how to aid the wounded because of the new weapons that were used. In fact, some surgeons dedicated most of their talent to creating new techniques to help men of the war. Once these surgeons realized the affect the appearance had on an individual, plastic surgery became much more common in America. America was once said to be a big melting pot of different ethnic groups and cultural rituals. In earlier history, most people did not get these operations done to enhance ones beauty, they did it because their lives almost depended on it. Even though plastic surgery started off as a procedure that was only done to fix an abnormality, this is one thing that has become apart of our culture. Cosmetic surgery has manifested into something that everyone

Frankenstein Essay - 1374 Words

Compare Shelley’s Presentation of Women in Frankenstein with that of Brave New World Throughout the novel, Frankenstein, a feminist theme subtly pervades the novel, and is crucial to the characters of the story, the plot line and the setting of the novel. The reasons for the creation of the monster lie within Frankenstein s own familial relationships, especially with the grief he experienced at the loss of his mother. Frankenstein is riddled with passive female characters who suffer throughout the novel. However, not one female character throughout the novel ever exhibits behaviour outside of the submissive female role. Elizabeth, Victor s love, dies at the hand of the male creature, while waiting for Victor to rescue her.†¦show more content†¦The portrayal of male superiority is uniform throughout the novel, and starts by introducing that overall dominance with the tour of the Hatchery. All the students on the tour are male and although maybe a minor detail, this shows that women are restricted to the things they do at an early age. During the tour, the students learn about pregnancies and that women are sterilised, yet the men aren’t. This short and important fact by the author exclaims the physiological dominance of men over women. The book shows no clear objection to leaving the future of their offspring in the hands of males, even if it is unhealthy. A specific character to talk about in Brave New World is Linda. Linda is the character in the novel who opposes the traditional role of women in the book (and that of women in Frankenstein). Like in a lot of Huxley’s pieces, this novel centres heavily around sex. In Brave New World, sex is no longer used for procreation but for distraction and pacification. The act has been dehumanised and devoid of human passion. I feel in this, Huxley tries to argue whether the future of our lifestyle is a subjugation of a natural inclination toward monogamy or the freedom of sleeping with many people. Linda is portrayed as the person opposing to modern culture, and causes the reader to question whether Huxley’s portrayal of women in Brave New World is apt. For her opposition to the modernShow MoreRelatedFrankenstein And Frankenstein Essay1474 Words   |  6 Pagesfictional characters, most famously in John Milton’s Paradise Lost, in 1667, and Mary Shelley’s Frankenstei n, in 1818. The complexity of the characters in these texts creates the theme of nature versus nurture before they diverge and arrive at differing conclusions. Many critics arose over the years to contest the main character of Milton’s epic. Shelley, arguably Milton’s greatest critic, wrote Frankenstein to contrast her views on the conflict between creator and creation. She also uses an unconventionalRead MoreCritical Essay On Frankenstein1219 Words   |  5 Pages Frankenstein Critical Essay In the book Frankenstein by Mary Shelley an often debated topic is: who is responsible for the murders throughout the novel? The story is all based around how Frankenstein creates a monster in his laboratory. This monster is made of old human body parts, and Frankenstein brings it to life. The monster is unable to fit into society and he is called ugly often. Throughout the novel the monster just wants to fit in and be accepted by others. Frankenstein being hisRead MoreFrankenstein essay 2 672 Words   |  3 Pagesï » ¿ Frankensteins Monster and Miltons Satan An Essay on Paradise Lost and Frankenstein By Chris Davidson Almost all great works of literature contain allusions to other great works of literature that enhance the meaning of the work. 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It is one that is completely rejected by societyRead More Frankenstein Essay584 Words   |  3 Pages Frankenstein nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;In the book Frankenstein, by Mary Shelley, the two main characters, Victor and the monster have completely different personalities and the expectation of their actions are very different from what one would imagine. When Victor’s project of the monster finally comes to life, Victor gets scared and runs away from it, showing the readers how he is a very selfish man. The monster and Victor spend two years away from each other until the monster finds VictorRead More Frankenstein Essay572 Words   |  3 Pages In Marry Shelley’s Frankenstein, the powerful creature represents the physical manifestation of the ugliness and selfishness of Victor’s desires as well as being the solution for his need to escape from the elements that threaten his way of life. Victor chose to embark on the arduous task of creating what he perceived as perfection. To him, this creation was intended to be both intelligent and powerful, immortal and beautiful. He was seeking the perfect humanoid entity that he thought would beRead MoreSublime In Frankenstein Essay1497 Words   |  6 Pagesirony [1] . The Castle of Otranto is the first Gothic novel written by Horace Walpole in which the idea of the Sublime is presented through its physical, transcending and overpowering imagery. This experience is also illustrated in Mary Shelley s Frankenstein; both novels explore the idea and concept of the Sublime and show the theoretical notions through its characters and themes conveyed. I will examine the features of the genre by looking at the imagery which is presented by the writers in orderRead MoreFrankenstein Application Essay1036 Words   |  5 PagesFrankenstein Application Essay, Writing Assignment 5 Can science go too far when it equips man with tools to manipulate life? 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The tortured mind of the creator expresses the notion that one who plays god willRead More FRANKENSTEIN Essay754 Words   |  4 PagesFRANKENSTEIN In the story â€Å"Frankenstein,† written by the author Mary Shelley, Victor Frankenstein decided that wanted to create a being out of people that were already dead. He believed that he could bring people back from the grave. Playing with nature in such a way would make him play the role of God. With Victor Frankenstein feeling that he had no true friends, the only relief he had of expressing his feeling was through letters to Elizabeth. Elizabeth was not Victors’ true sister but

The Elderly Free Essays

Growing up , children are taught to respect those who are elder than them, emphasizing parents and grandparents. This is a fine moral value to instill on a child but once that child begins to age , he/she will begin to see the truth behind the lies. As people age their minds deteriorate leading to bad motor skills , forgetfulness and irrational thinking , causing society to view them as a crazy nuisance. We will write a custom essay sample on The Elderly or any similar topic only for you Order Now Elderly people need some assistance with daily activities and health care from their families. The adult children of this elders often face a difficult challenge in helping their parents make the right choices. The family is one of the most important providers for the elderly. Infact, the majority of caregivers for the elderly are often member of their own family , most often daughter or granddaughter. But sometimes family members of the elderly people ,who generally take care of them , get frustrated or angry and behave harshly with them , beat them. This leads to elderly abuse. Elderly abuse in our country is growing. Abusers of older adults are both male and female. Usually family members are often the abusers in the domestic surroundings. Researchers estimated two thirds of the elder abuse are family members. The news which comes in the national news paper that elderly parents are being harassed, neglected, and even thrown out of the home, makes a citizen of India shameful and sad. This country was renowned for its good treatment to elderly as well as to the young since ages. The reason was the profound ethical and religious teaching which was prevalent in this country from ages. India being a land of multi lingual and multi religious back ground never one could have thought to see that elderly parents one day could be regarded as unwanted stranger in their own house. But, from a decade or two this unnatural phenomena suddenly appears with such a magnitude that one find himself bewildered how to accept it. Unfortunately this is a real hard fact through which the nation is passing. According to a survey 40% senior citizen living with their families are facing â€Å"emotional and physical abuse. † It is reported that one old grand mother is being thrown out in the garbage by her son and grand son where she ultimately died. India was land where elders were treated with respect and dignity. Mother and father in a house were just like a king and queen where they were treated as a commander of the house not by force but by the way of love and affection which was flourishing in the house. How this sudden change in the attitude of son of the same soil has appeared so abruptly. It is not the soil which has changed but the air and atmosphere of the land has gradually infested with foreign culture and artificial light and glamour as projected through the television and electronic media which has eroded the Indian culture of patience, gratitude and sacrifice. How to cite The Elderly, Papers The Elderly Free Essays Growing up , children are taught to respect those who are elder than them , emphasizing parents and grandparents. This is a fine moral value to instill on a child but once that child begins to age , he/she will begin to see the truth behind the lies. As people age their minds deteriorate leading to bad motor skills , forgetfulness and irrational thinking , causing society to view them as a crazy nuisance. We will write a custom essay sample on The Elderly or any similar topic only for you Order Now Elderly people need some assistance with daily activities and health care from their families. The adult children of this elders often face a difficult challenge in helping their parents make the right choices. The family is one of the most important providers for the elderly. Infact, the majority of caregivers for the elderly are often member of their own family , most often daughter or granddaughter. But sometimes family members of the elderly people ,who generally take care of them , get frustrated or angry and behave harshly with them , beat them. This leads to elderly abuse. Elderly abuse in our country is growing. Abusers of older adults are both male and female. Usually family members are often the abusers in the domestic surroundings. Researchers estimated two thirds of the elder abuse are family members. The news which comes in the national news paper that elderly parents are being harassed, neglected, and even thrown out of the home, makes a citizen of India shameful and sad. This country was renowned for its good treatment to elderly as well as to the young since ages. The reason was the profound ethical and religious teaching which was prevalent in this country from ages. India being a land of multi lingual and multi religious back ground never one could have thought to see that elderly parents one day could be regarded as unwanted stranger in their own house. But, from a decade or two this unnatural phenomena suddenly appears with such a magnitude that one find himself bewildered how to accept it. Unfortunately this is a real hard fact through which the nation is passing. According to a survey 40% senior citizen living with their families are facing â€Å"emotional and physical abuse. † It is reported that one old grand mother is being thrown out in the garbage by her son and grand son where she ultimately died. India was land where elders were treated with respect and dignity. Mother and father in a house were just like a king and queen where they were treated as a commander of the house not by force but by the way of love and affection which was flourishing in the house. How this sudden change in the attitude of son of the same soil has appeared so abruptly. It is not the soil which has changed but the air and atmosphere of the land has gradually infested with foreign culture and artificial light and glamour as projected through the television and electronic media which has eroded the Indian culture of patience, gratitude and sacrifice. How to cite The Elderly, Papers

The Role Of Bobby Kennedy Throughout The Cuban Missile Crisis Essay Example For Students

The Role Of Bobby Kennedy Throughout The Cuban Missile Crisis Essay IntroductionOn the morning of Tuesday October 16, 1962, President John F. Kennedy was reading the Tuesday morning newspapers in his bed at the Whitehouse. Not twenty fours hours before, McGeorge Bundy, Kennedys national security adviser, received the results of Major Richard S. Heysers U-2 mission over San Cristobal Cuba. In light of recent mysterious Soviet and Cuban activities developing in the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, the presidents administration had given the order to conduct reconnaissance missions over the island of Cuba. In particular a fifty-mile trapezoidal swath of territory in western Cuba was to be looked upon under intense scrutiny. A CIA agent reported in the second week of September that this stretch of land was being guarded closely by Peruvian, Colombian, and actual Soviet soldiers. There was a real reason to be suspicious of the activity in western Cuba. The first of this U-2 reconnaissance mission would reveal a shocking discovery.(Chang ; William p.33-47 )The U-2 reconnaissance reports that Bundy received in full detail two 70-foot-long MRBMs at San Cristobal. The news that Bundy would eventually have to expose to President Kennedy would sound alarms not just in his administration or in the United States of America, but throughout the entire world. Bundy did not tell the president that night. He opted to allow him a good nights rest, the last he would have for some time, as it turned out. Bundy felt there was nothing the president could do about the missiles that night anyway, and he would need to be sharp the next morning.(Brugioni p.68) Besides Bundy and the leadership of the U.S. intelligence community, Dean Rusk and his team at State, as well as McNamara and the deputy secretary of defense, Roswell Gilpatric, received word of the U-2s discovery before going to bed on October 15. Kennedys discovery of the missiles could wait till the next morning.(May Zelikow p.24)Thus on the morning of October 16, while Kennedy was lying in bed , Bundy informed that the U-2 mission that flew over Cuba had spotted two nuclear missiles and six missile transports southwest of Havana. Before the summer of that same year had ended, Khrushchev had made the twin promise that ?nothing will be undertaken before the American Congressional elections that could complicate the international situation or aggravate the tension in the relations between our two countries,? and ensured the president through his own brother Robert F. Kennedy, the attorney general of the United States and the presidents closet advisor by means of a back channel, that only defensive weapons were to be placed in Cuba.(Brugioni p56) This last and final statement left the young attorney general and the entire administration to believe that no offensive nuclear missiles, and certainly no weapons that were capable of hitting any target in the continental United States were being placed in Cuba at this time.(Chang ; William p67) The news brought to the Kennedy admin istration in the form of the U-2s telltale photographs made nonsense of both of Khrushchevs pledges. But most importantly the Soviet Union had equipped Cuba with an arsenal of Soviet nuclear missiles despite a presidential statement only a month early that the United States would not tolerate such a situation in the Western Hemisphere. Kennedy felt personally insulted by the deployment of these missiles.(Fursenko ; Naftali p.193) He thought that he had done everything possible to defuse and smooth over tense relations with the Soviet Union even before he took office in 1960. This devastating news from Cuba would result in the tense period in Cold War history to date and perhaps its tensest period in the entire history of the war. Kennedy decided limit the information regarding the devastating news from Cuba to as small a group as possible. This group would come to be known as the Executive Committee of the National Security Council, or as it would later be known and shortened to simply Ex Comm.(Brugioni p.45) This would be the group of Washingtons sharpest and most influential minds that would more or less decide the fate of the nation and the world. A heavy responsibility would be carried on their shoulders. If they failed they we would take the entire nation with them. The group would come to include Charles Bohlen, the old Kremlin hand who was recently named U.S. ambassador to France. Beside Bohlen it would include Secretary of State Dean Rusk, as well as Undersecretary of State George Ball and Assistant Secretary of State for Latin America Edwin M. Martin, as well as Ambassador at Large Llewellyn Thompson. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara and his deputies Roswell Gilpatric and Paul Nitze represented the Defense Department. John McCone, head of the CIA, away on an urgent family matter, was replaced by his deputy Marshall ?Pat? Carter, and the CIA was also represented by the head of the NPIC, Arthur Lundahl, whose analysts had found the missile sites on the U-2 photographs. General Maxwell Taylor came as chairman of the JCS. Rounding out the group were McGeorge Bundy and the Kennedy speechwriter Theodore Sorensen, as well as Treasury Secretary C. Douglas Dillon. Last but not least this group of Washingtons sharpest minds was joined and highly i nfluenced by the Presidents brother and closest advisor, the Attorney General of the United States, Robert F. Kennedy.(May Zelikow p.8-12)Robert F. Kennedy would prove to be one of the most, if not the most important person responsible in deciding the fate of the two world superpowers and essentially the entire world next to Nikita S. Khrushchev, the Premier of the Soviet Union, and his own brother, John F. Kennedy, the President of the United States. Even before the crisis reached a head when the American government finally discovered the nuclear missiles in western Cuba, Bobby Kennedy played a key role in attempting to guarantee Americas worst nightmare would never come to being. Through his own personal back channel to the Kremlin, a Soviet intelligence officer and member of the KGB, Georgi Bolshakov, Kennedy attempted to shape and relay messages and negotiations between the two superpowers in question.(Brugioni p.157) When Kennedy was deceived through these private and often pe rsonal channels, there was no question that Robert F. Kennedy felt a degree of personal insult and damage to his own pride. Kennedy would play a key role throughout all of the Ex Comm meetings, and while his brother was away, there was no question that was in charge of these meetings. Throughout these meetings, Bobbys own views on how to deal with this dramatic situation evolved from a rather hawkish and indignant position; a wish to get even, to a much more moderate and sensible, even dovish position on how to deal with the situation in question. Kennedy would play an important role in shaping the final course of action in handling the drama at hand. Finally Kennedy would play the role of messenger and negotiator with the Soviet ambassador to Washington, Anatoly Dobrynin, in negotiating the final deal and trade off to defuse the conflict and end it once and for all. Involved in this secret negotiating, the knowledge of which was possessed by less then ten men in both the United States and the Soviet Union at this time is also laden with controversy, involving classified documents and different accounts of the true story revealed on both the American and Soviet side of the conflict, including the memoirs of Nikita S. Khrushchev himself.(Chang Kornbluh p.237)Kennedy was one of the most important shapers of the entire conflict. Without his presence it is unknown which direction this conflict would have taken. It would be Robert F. Kennedy whom the president would rely on and trust the most in this situation. He was one of the most vocal in dealing with the conflict and certainly one of the most rational. He helped keep control of t he situation and staved off the continued assaults of the war hawks in congress who truly looked to attain the upper hand in the method of dealing with this conflict. His great and important role in this conflict that will be discussed, from his secret back channels to the Kremlin in the months before the crisis, to the deals he would eventually present and make to the Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin. Back Channels to the KremlinRobert F. Kennedy first met Georgi Bolshakov through Frank Holeman, an American journalist for the New York Daily News. Bolshakov was a soviet intelligence agent. He had been working for the Soviet intelligence agency GRU. The GRU, who began his grueling training process in 1943, while the war with Hitler, was still very much in full swing. Despite the war going on around him, Bolshakov was trained in a vigorous apprenticeship for seven years to become a Soviet intelligence officer, and then attended a three-year course at the High Intelligence School of the General Staff. In all his training lasted until 1950 during which time he acquired some impressive English language skills. As a result of his impressive English skills, Bolshakov was assigned to the TASS Soviet news agency in Washington where he would be an editor whose main role in the office would be to cultivate sources.(Brugioni p.157) After dedicating four years to this assignment aboard in Washi ngton, Bolshakov was recalled back to Moscow where he was to work under Soviet Defense Minister Marshal Georgi Zhukov. When Zhukov was dismissed in 1957, a temporary halt was brought to Bolshakovs career. However his career would see a rival by the end of the 1950s through his friendship with the new son-in-law of Soviet Premier Khrushchev, Aleksei Adzhubei, the husband of Rada Khrushchev. By 1960 Bolshakov was back in Washington working once again for GRU.(Brugioni p. 157-9) Frank Holeman had first met Bolshakov in 1951 at a Soviet held lunch-in in Holemans honor. The two hit it off rather well and met infrequently and exchanged information. Soviets soon began to value Holeman as a useful informant and encouraged this budding relationship until Bolshakov was transferred back to Moscow in 1955.(Brugioni p.159) Upon Bolshakovs return to Washington in 1960, Holeman was quick to reestablish ties with his former acquaintance from Moscow. Soon after Holeman and Bolshakov began there corr espondence again, Holeman dropped the prospect to Bolshakov of possible meeting in person to discuss national interests with the attorney general of the United States, the brother of the President himself, Robert F. Kennedy. Bolshakov was taken off guard by the suggestion, but was quite tempted and excited about possible taking face to face with someone in such a position of American power as Kennedy. Despite his hidden enthusiasm, Bolshakov replied to the journalist that he needed approval from his ?embassy before such a meeting could be proposed.(Brugioni p.160-4) What Bolshakov really needed was permission for his boss in the GRU, whose identity is still unknown, who initially upon hearing the proposal was rather surprised that one of his assistance would of interest to the Attorney General of the United States and rejected the proposition. Why would some one of such importance wish to speak to one of his assistants?Despite the rejection by his superior and despite relaying the m essage back to Holeman that he would be unable to meet with the attorney general, Bolshakov decided to risk it anyway and meet up with Holeman on May 9th of 1961, just ten days after Holeman made his initial proposal. Bolshakov chose the date of May 9th for the meeting with Bobby Kennedy because it was a Soviet holiday in celebration of the defeat of fascism in 1945, and his office with the GRU would be understaffed as most of his colleagues would be home enjoying the holiday. Thus Bolshakov would be able to move around much easier.(Brugioni p.166)Holeman met Bolshakov at roughly 4:30 at a nearby restaurant in Georgetown. Bolshakov had barely sat down to eat when Holeman asked him if he would be ready to meet Kennedy at 8:30 in front of the Justice Department office in Washington. Bolshakov was once again caught off guard by the abruptness of the scheduling of the meeting, but agreed non-the less to meet with Kennedy at this time. At 8:30 sharp Kennedy was waiting with one of his ai des on the steps of the Justice Department building. Holeman introduced the Soviet intelligence officer to the Attorney General of the United States. With that Both Holeman and the Kennedy aide left the two gentlemen to themselves to talk.(Brugioni p.167-8) The groundwork was unofficially laid. From then on Robert F. Kennedy had his own personal connection to the Kremlin, via a Soviet intelligence officer. Fame - Not all It's Cracked Up to Be EssayBobby Kennedy and the Ex Comm MeetingsThe beginning of the Ex Comm talks for Robert F. Kennedy were marked by humiliation. The humiliation that he was directly lied to by the Soviet Union through one of his closest contacts and the humiliation that Castro had once again made the United States look like a bunch of fools. He struggled in the early part of these Ex Comm meetings with that humiliation on his shoulders. Robert Kennedy believed that the missiles in Cuba represented an extremely valuable bargaining chip for both the Soviets and the Cubans. His opinion was also shared by his brother the president of the United States. Kennedy wondered whether Castro might not make new threats against Cubas neighbors, saying, ?You move troops down into that part of Venezuela, were going to fire these missiles.?(Fursenko ; Naftali p.235) The attorney general in the first meeting of Ex Comm was by far the strongest advocate for invasion. He understood his brothers sensitivity toward the political impact of a U.S. reaction that was not considered commensurate to the crime. But Robert Kennedy also expected Khrushchev simply to reload his missiles if he lost his first group of missiles to an American air strike. The odds of destroying every missile cleanly and efficiently with just one simple air strike were next to impossible.(Fursenko Naftali p.247)Perhaps as a way of showing how an invasion could be made internationally acceptable, Robert Kennedy brought up the quick fix that he had been advocating off and on since the Bay of Pigs disaster. ?We should also think of . . . whether there is some other way we can get involved in this through . . . Guantanamo Bay, or something, . . . or whether theres some ship that, you know, sink the Maine again or something.?(Hinckle ; William p. 278) Kennedy was indeed grasping for straws suggesting such farfetched and outlandish excuses for invading Cuba, under pretexts of questionable morality. However Kennedy was confused and extremely frustrated by the current situation. Much of what Kennedy suggests early on in the Ex Comm meetings were the venting of great frustration over the crisis. None the less his brother, the president of the United States took Bobby Kennedys lamentations very seriously. Bobby was still his closest advisor and John F. Kennedy felt the same frustration and confusion that his brother felt. Initially most of the other members of Ex Comm barring the members of the actually military who were present, supported a much more peaceful way of dealing with the situation. Diplomacy was seen as an alternative means of dealing with such an explosive situation. Llewellyn Thompson advocated a naval blockade of Cuba.(Dolan Scariano p.105) Believing it ?very highly doubtful the Russians would resist a blockade against military weapons . . .?(Dolan Scariano p.105) Thompson argued that the best way to avoid peace or at least legitimatize an invasion of Cuba was a combined stern coercion of blockade with a public demand that Moscow dismantle its missile sites in Cuba. Thompson realized that odds were this would not be enough to remove the missiles already existing in Cuba and would not prevent them from becoming operational in the near future. He suggested threatening to use force if Khrushchev ignored the U.S. demand. ?I think we should be under no illusions that this would probably i n the end lead to the same thing,? he said with some resignation. ?But we would do it under an entirely different posture and background, and much less danger of getting into the big war.?(Fursenko Naftali p.253)In the beginning Robert Kennedy, still very much a hawk disagreed in entirely with Thompson. He saw the blockade as a ?very slow death.?(Thompson p.123) Robert Kennedy envisioned that a blockade would last for months. He saw a great deal of conflict involved in a naval blockade anyway. The stopping of Russian ships by the American navy would cause chaos and possibly even retaliation by Russian ships. Russian ships would dare the American navy to stop them, and no doubt about it there would be ships that would attempt to run and break through any kind of naval blockade put into affect by the United States Navy. Russian planes that attempted to fly over the American blockade would have to me shot down which would lead to nothing more than an escalated mess.(Fursenko Naftali p. 256-9) These at least were Kennedys arguments. On October 19, the Ex Comm divided into two groups. There was the air strike team, which included Treasury Secretary Dillon, Bundy, CIA director John McCone, and the former secretary of state Dean Acheson who had now joined in on the Ex Comm meetings. Robert Kennedy chose to join this group. Favoring the blockade were Secretary of Defense John McNamara, Dean Rusk, Thompson, George Ball.(Blight ; Welch p.235) The responsibility of the two groups was to generate by the end of the day position papers that made the strongest case possible for their preference. Over the next thirty-six hours, Robert Kennedy played a key role in bringing these two groups together. He considered himself apart of the air strike team, but his position on so drastic a measure was wavering. While he still saw the naval blockade as full of headaches and weaknesses, he saw the air strike position as even more dangerous.(Fursenko ; Naftali p.263-4)The reason he was wavering was not that agreed with Thompson or the others, rather he began to fully recognize the consequence of the alternative air strike. An air strike left little room for the Soviet Union and communist Cuba to manuver. In a situation such as the one placed upon them in an air strike, the two communist nations would seemingly have no choice but to fight back and defend themselves.(Blight ; Welch p.229) In the morning Bobby Kennedy argued that the U.S. airforce should simply go and make the attack without warning. Only after a full air strike was made against the Soviet Cuban positions on the island should the United States go to the Organization of American States. This was Kennedys view. By the evening of the same day, he was firmly against striking without warning. Kennedy realized the cowardlyness in such an attack. A similar surprise attack was made on the day of December 7th, 1945, a day that would live in infamy. There was no way Kennedy decided, that he would allow his brother to be compared with Tojo of Japan, in refere nce to the Japanese sneak on the American navy stationed in Pearl Harbor that eventually lead to American involvement in World War II. The United States was not in the tradition of cowardlyness.(Blight Welch p.230) While he still was leaning towards an air strike or at least an eventual air strike over a naval blockade, he realized that the Soviet response to such a strike would be far more prepared if they were warned previously. None the less Bobby Kennedy had become dead set against a preemptive without warning strike on the island of Cuba. As a result, he had changed his mind about resorting to a blockade as a first step.(Thompson p.145)By the time John F. Kennedy had arrived back at the White House after a scheduled cross country trip across the United States early Saturday morning, Bobby Kennedy was firmly locked into the blockade camp of Ex Comm. If a vote were to take place in Ex Comm, the air strike camp would lose. Robert F. Kennedy upon weighing the options of an air str ike over taking the first step as an announced military blockade realized that the consequences of the air strike made the blockade far more appealing.(Fursenko Naftali p.267) At least the blockade could buy time and allow the Soviets to retreat without a single shot being fired. It was President Kennedy who in fact needed convincing of the impracticality of an air strike as opposed to a naval blockade. Kennedy would indeed take some convincing that the blockade would be a safer alternative to an outright surgical air strike on Soviet missile positions in Cuba. However in light of new CIA intelligence that intelligence agency understood that the operational status of the missiles and the possibility of hitherto undiscovered missile sites were the issues closest to the presidents heart and potentially most relevant to his final decision.(Hinckle ; William p.287) Thus with the help Bobby Kennedy bringing the Ex Comm group together and the shining of light onto newly found intelligence, the blockade camp carried the day. On Monday morning Kennedy would give a nationally televised address, followed by the imposition of a limited blockade a day later. Kennedy realized that the pentagon barring McNamara was against the decision, but was affirmed by General Taylor that the U.S. armed services would back the presidents decision completely.(Hinckle William p. 293) Robert Kennedy also argued that the pretext behind a naval blockade of the island of Cuba should be of a moral pretext. He argued that the pretext of a naval blockade should involve the deception of the Soviets in there placing of nuclear weapons on the island of Cuba despite American warnings of what would be the consequences of such an action. President Kennedy however rejected this moral pretext. Kennedy stated flatly why there was not an acceptable military option at this stage in the crisis. The Soviet Unions mobile MRBM (medium range ballistic missile) bases ?can be set up quite quickly,? and for this reason and this reason alone he was sure there were more on the island had previously been detected.(Cohen p.175) Kennedy no longer believed the Soviets would act prudently in the event of war. After all it was not very prudent of the Soviet Union to seriously believe it could place nuclear missiles right under the nose of America and easily get away with it. Kennedy thought that maybe even the Soviets we re itching for the fight. Right up till Kennedys address, the Soviets were unaware that the Americans had idea that the United States knew of the ballistic missiles in Cuba. Howe